Abstract
The Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region faces a growing crisis of air and atmospheric pollution, driven by a complex interplay of factors including rapid urbanization, industrial emissions, agricultural practices, and transboundary pollution. This pollution, encompassing particulate matter, ozone, and other harmful gases, is having devastating consequences across the region. On human health, the polluted air contributes significantly to respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and even premature deaths. Vulnerable populations, such as children and the elderly, are particularly susceptible. The region's ecosystems are also under severe stress. Air pollution disrupts plant growth and biodiversity, affecting the delicate ecological balance of the mountains. Deposition of pollutants alters soil chemistry and water quality, impacting forest health and the survival of many species. Water resources, crucial for the livelihoods of millions, are threatened by atmospheric deposition of pollutants. Acid rain and the settling of particulate matter contaminate rivers, lakes, and glaciers, affecting water availability and quality for drinking and irrigation. Agricultural activities are also adversely affected. Air pollution damages crops, reduces yields, and contaminates food sources, impacting food security and farmer livelihoods. Soot deposition accelerates glacier melt, further exacerbating water scarcity and increasing the risk of glacial lake outburst floods. The HKH region's vulnerability to climate change is amplified by air pollution, demanding urgent and coordinated action to mitigate these adverse impacts. Finally, the review emphasizes the need for integrated mitigation strategies and further research to protect the health and livelihoods of the millions of people dependent on the HKH region.
Keywords
Air Pollution, Atmospheric Pollution, Hindu Kush Himalaya, Human Health, Ecosystems, Water Quality, Agriculture, Climate Change
1. Introduction
The Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region, often referred to as the "Water Tower of Asia," is a vast and complex mountain range spanning over 3,500 kilometers across eight countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. This region is crucial for regulating regional climate, providing freshwater resources for over 1.9 billion people, and supporting diverse ecosystems. However, rapid population growth, urbanization, industrialization, and unsustainable agricultural practices are contributing significantly to air and atmospheric pollution in the HKH.
The unique topography of the HKH region, characterized by deep valleys and towering peaks, traps pollutants and facilitates their long-range transport from heavily polluted areas downwind. This leads to elevated levels of air and atmospheric pollutants, exceeding national and international air quality standards in many areas. These pollutants not only pose a direct threat to human health but also have cascading effects on the region's fragile ecosystems, water resources, and agricultural productivity, exacerbating existing vulnerabilities and undermining sustainable development
| [1] | Ainsworth, E. A. (2017). Understanding and improving global crop production under simultaneous drought and ozone stress. New Phytologist, 214(1), 33-39. |
[1]
.
This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of air and atmospheric pollution in the HKH, its sources, composition, and the adverse impacts on human health, ecosystems, water quality, and agricultural activities. It also explores the interactions between pollution and climate change in the region and highlights the need for integrated mitigation strategies and further research to address this growing environmental challenge.
Figure 1. Geographical distribution of the eight Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) countries.
The map highlights the countries spanning the HKH region namely asAfghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China, and Myanmar (Burma). These areas are central to understanding the regional impacts of air and atmospheric pollution. Major locations relevant to transboundary air flow, ecosystem vulnerability, and human exposure are marked for reference.
2. Sources and Composition of Air and Atmospheric Pollution in the HKH
Air and atmospheric pollution in the HKH originates from a combination of local and transboundary sources. Identifying these sources is crucial for developing effective mitigation strategies.
2.1. Local Sources
2.1.1. Residential Fuel Combustion
A significant portion of the population in the HKH region relies on traditional biomass fuels, such as wood, dung, and agricultural residues, for cooking and heating. Inefficient combustion of these fuels releases large quantities of particulate matter (PM), black carbon (BC), carbon monoxide (CO), and other harmful pollutants into the atmosphere
| [28] | Venkataraman, C., Habib, G., Eiguren-Fernandez, A., Miguel, A. H., and Friedlander, S. K. (2005). Residential biofuels in India: Carbonaceous aerosol emissions and climate impact. Science, 307(5707), 1454-1456. |
[28]
.
2.1.2. Transportation
The increasing number of vehicles, including old and poorly maintained cars and trucks, contributes significantly to air pollution, particularly in urban centers and along major transportation corridors. Emissions from vehicles include PM, nitrogen oxides (NOx), CO, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
| [17] | Nagpure, A. S., Gurjar, B. R., and Kumar, P. (2011). Impact of urban road traffic emissions on ambient air quality: A comparative assessment between developing and developed countries. Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health, 4(1), 1-13. |
[17]
.
2.1.3. Industrial Activities
Industrial activities, such as cement production, brick kilns, and textile manufacturing, are major sources of pollutants like PM, sulfur dioxide (SO
2), NOx, and heavy metals. Many industries lack adequate pollution control technologies, leading to high emission rates
| [26] | Sharma, S. K., Mandal, T. K., and Srivastava, R. M. (2010). Assessment of air quality in the vicinity of a coal-fired thermal power plant. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 161(1-4), 1-14. |
[26]
.
2.1.4. Agricultural Practices
Agricultural activities, including livestock farming, fertilizer application, and burning of crop residues, tend to release ammonia (NH
3), methane (CH
4), and nitrous oxide (N
2O) into the atmosphere. Ammonia contributes to the formation of secondary aerosols, while methane and nitrous oxide are potent greenhouse gases
| [18] | Pathak, H., Jain, N., Bhatia, A., Kumar, S., and Sindhu, R. (2009). Greenhouse gas emissions from Indian agriculture: Sources, sinks and mitigation strategies. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 14(5), 419-439. |
[18]
.
2.1.5. Open Burning
Forest fires, often deliberately set for land clearing, and the burning of municipal waste contribute significantly to air pollution, releasing large quantities of PM, CO, and other pollutants into the atmosphere
| [6] | Duncan, B. N., Logan, J. A., Bey, I., Megretskaia, I. A., Yantosca, R. M., Novelli, P. C., and Jones, D. B. A. (2003). Interannual variability of biomass burning emissions and correlation with satellite ozone measurements. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 108(D2), 4041. |
[6]
.
2.2. Transboundary Sources
Long-Range Transport of Pollutants
The HKH region is significantly impacted by the long-range transport of pollutants from densely populated and industrialized regions downwind, particularly the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP). Pollutants transported from the IGP include PM, BC, ozone (O
3), and their precursors
| [13] | Lawrence, M. G., and Lelieveld, J. (2010). Atmospheric pollutant outflow from southern Asia: A review. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 10(22), 11017-11096. |
[13]
.
Figure 2. A Conceptual diagram depicting the sources, the atmospheric pathways, and the impacts of air pollution in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region.
The major emission sources include residential fuel combustion, industrial emissions, and agricultural activities. Pollutants such as smog and haze are transported via atmospheric currents and deposited across the region, resulting in adverse effects on human health, water quality, and agriculture.
2.3. Composition of Air and Atmospheric Pollutants
2.3.1. Particulate Matter (PM)
Particulate Matter (PM), especially PM
2.5 (particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or less), is a significant concern in the HKH region. PM
2.5 can penetrate deep into the lungs and cause serious health problems. The composition of PM varies depending on the source but often includes black carbon, organic carbon, sulfates, nitrates, and mineral dust
| [22] | Ramana, M. V., Ramanathan, V., Kim, D., Corrigan, C. E., Carmichael, G. R., Flatau, P. J., and Nakajima, T. (2010). Warming influenced by the ratio of black carbon to sulphate and the black-carbon absorption Ångström exponent. Nature Geoscience, 3(8), 542-545. |
[22]
.
2.3.2. Black Carbon (BC)
Black Carbon (BC) is a potent short-lived climate pollutant that absorbs solar radiation and contributes to warming. It is primarily emitted from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels and biomass. BC deposition on snow and ice reduces albedo, accelerating melting and glacier retreat
| [23] | Ramanathan, V., and Carmichael, G. (2008). Global warming by black carbon. Nature Geoscience, 1(4), 221-227. |
[23]
.
2.3.3. Ozone (O3)
Ozone is a secondary pollutant formed in the atmosphere through photochemical reactions involving NOx, VOCs, and sunlight. Elevated levels of ozone can damage vegetation and cause respiratory problems in humans
| [14] | Lelieveld, J., Berresheim, H., Borrmann, S., Crutzen, P. J., Dentener, F. J., Fischer, H., and Williams, J. (2002). Global air pollution crossroads over the Mediterranean. Science, 298 (5594), 794-799. |
[14]
.
2.3.4. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
NOx are emitted from combustion processes, primarily from vehicles and industrial sources. They contribute to the formation of ozone and acid rain
| [25] | Seinfeld, J. H., and Pandis, S. N. (2016). Atmospheric chemistry and physics: From air pollution to climate change. John Wiley & Sons. |
[25]
.
2.3.5. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
SO
2 is primarily emitted from the burning of fossil fuels containing sulfur, such as coal. It contributes to the formation of acid rain and respiratory problems
| [4] | Charlson, R. J., Schwartz, S. E., Hales, J. M., Cess, R. D., Coakley, J. A., Jr., Hansen, J. E., and Hofmann, D. J. (1992). Climate forcing by anthropogenic aerosols. Science, 255(5043), 423-430. |
[4]
.
2.3.6. Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)
GHGs, including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), contribute to global warming. Sources of GHGs in the HKH region include fossil fuel combustion, agricultural activities, and deforestation.
3. Adverse Impacts of Air and Atmospheric Pollution in the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) Region
3.1. Impacts on Human Health
Air pollution poses significant risks to human health in the HKH region. Exposure to high levels of PM, ozone, and other pollutants can lead to a range of respiratory and cardiovascular problems.
3.1.1. Respiratory Diseases
Exposure to PM
2.5 and ozone can exacerbate existing respiratory conditions, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and increase the risk of respiratory infections, such as pneumonia and bronchitis
| [19] | Pope, C. A., and Dockery, D. W. (2006). Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: Lines that connect. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 56(6), 709-742. |
[19]
.
3.1.2. Cardiovascular Diseases
Air pollution has been linked to an increased risk of heart attacks, strokes, and other cardiovascular diseases. PM
2.5 can enter the bloodstream and trigger inflammation, which can damage the cardiovascular system
| [3] | Brook, R. D., Rajagopalan, S., Pope, C. A., III, Brook, J. R., Bhatnagar, A., Diez-Roux, A. V., and McConnell, R. (2010). Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease: An update to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 121(21), 2331-2378. |
[3]
.
3.1.3. Cancer
Long-term exposure to air pollution has been associated with an increased risk of lung cancer and other types of cancer. Certain pollutants, such as benzene and formaldehyde, are known carcinogens
| [11] | Hamra, G. B., Loomis, D., Grosse, Y., Lauby-Secretan, B., Ghissassi, F. E., Bouvard, V., and Straif, K. (2014). Outdoor air pollution and cancer: A review of the evidence. International Journal of Cancer, 135(4), 827-843. |
[11]
.
3.1.4. Other Health Effects
Air pollution has also been linked to a variety of other health problems, including premature birth, low birth weight, cognitive impairment, and increased mortality.
3.1.5. Vulnerable Populations
Specific populations, such as children, the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing health conditions, are more vulnerable to the adverse health effects of air pollution.
3.2. Impacts on Ecosystems
Air and atmospheric pollution can have significant impacts on the fragile ecosystems of the HKH region.
3.2.1. Vegetation Damage
Ozone and acid rain can damage vegetation, including forests and agricultural crops. Ozone can damage plant tissues, reducing photosynthesis and crop yields. Acid rain can acidify soils and leach essential nutrients, impairing plant growth
| [9] | Fuhrer, J. (2009). Ozone risk assessment for vegetation: A critical appraisal. Environmental Pollution, 157(11), 2851-2860. |
[9]
.
3.2.2. Biodiversity Loss
Air pollution can alter habitats and reduce biodiversity. Sensitive species may be unable to tolerate high levels of pollution, leading to population declines and extinctions
| [29] | Vitousek, P. M., Mooney, H. A., Lubchenco, J., and Melillo, J. M. (1997). Human domination of Earth's ecosystems. Science, 277(5325), 494-499. |
[29]
.
3.2.3. Soil Acidification
Acid deposition, caused by SO
2 and NOx emissions, can acidify soils, impacting soil microorganisms and nutrient availability. This can impair plant growth and reduce soil fertility
| [15] | Likens, G. E., Driscoll, C. T., andBuso, D. C. (1996). Long-term effects of acid rain: Responses and recovery of a forest ecosystem. Science, 272(5259), 244-246. |
[15]
.
3.2.4. Changes in Nutrient Cycling
Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen can alter nutrient cycling in ecosystems, leading to eutrophication of water bodies and changes in plant community composition
| [10] | Galloway, J. N., Aber, J. D., Erisman, J. W., Seitzinger, S. P., Howarth, R. W., Cowling, E. B., and Cosby, B. J. (2003). The nitrogen cascade. BioScience, 53(4), 341-356. |
[10]
.
3.3. Impacts on Water Quality
Air and atmospheric pollution can degrade water quality in the HKH region through several mechanisms.
3.3.1. Acidification of Water Bodies
Acid deposition can acidify lakes and streams, harming aquatic life. Acidification can reduce the pH of water, making it difficult for fish and other organisms to survive
| [24] | Schindler, D. W. (1988). Effects of acid rain on freshwater ecosystems. Science, 239(4836), 149-157. |
[24]
.
3.3.2. Eutrophication
Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen can contribute to eutrophication of lakes and rivers, leading to algal blooms and oxygen depletion. Eutrophication can harm aquatic ecosystems and reduce water quality
| [27] | Smith, V. H. (2003). Eutrophication of freshwater ecosystems: Causes, consequences, and control. Environmental Management, 32(4), 454-479. |
[27]
.
3.3.3. Contamination with Heavy Metals
Air pollution can deposit heavy metals, such as mercury and lead, into water bodies, contaminating drinking water sources and harming aquatic life
| [16] | Mason, R. P., andSheu, G. R. (2002). Role of the ocean in the global mercury cycle. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 16(4), 1093. |
[16]
.
3.3.4. Glacier Melt
Black carbon deposition on glaciers accelerates melting and decreases water availability, impacting water quality and quantity downstream.
3.4. Impacts on Agricultural Activities
Air and atmospheric pollution can have significant impacts on agricultural activities in the HKH region, reducing crop yields and impacting food security.
3.4.1. Ozone Damage to Crops
Ozone can damage plant tissues, reducing photosynthesis and crop yields. Some crops, such as wheat and soybeans, are particularly sensitive to ozone damage
| [1] | Ainsworth, E. A. (2017). Understanding and improving global crop production under simultaneous drought and ozone stress. New Phytologist, 214(1), 33-39. |
[1]
.
3.4.2. Acid Rain Damage to Crops
Acid rain can acidify soils and leach essential nutrients, impairing plant growth and reducing crop yields
| [7] | Fenn, M. E., Pitelka, L. F., Dunn, C. P., Allen, E. B., Lindberg, S., Peterson, R., and Bytnerowicz, A. (2006). Ecological effects of air pollution in forests. Environmental Science and Technology, 40(10), 3045-3059. |
[7]
.
3.4.3. Reduced Pollination
Air pollution can harm pollinators, such as bees and butterflies, reducing pollination rates and crop yields
| [20] | Potts, S. G., Biesmeijer, J. C., Kremen, C., Neumann, P., Schweiger, O., and Kunin, W. E. (2010). Global pollinator declines: Trends, impacts and drivers. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 25(6), 345-353. |
[20]
.
3.4.4. Black Carbon Deposition on Crops
Black carbon deposition on crops reduces light absorption and can reduce photosynthesis, decreasing crop productivity.
3.4.5. Impacts on Livestock
Air pollution can also affect livestock health, reducing productivity and increasing mortality rates.
4. Interactions between Pollution and Climate Change in the HKH
Air pollution and climate change are intertwined in the HKH region, with each exacerbating the effects of the other.
Figure 3. Conceptual flowchart of pollutant pathways from emission to impact in the HKH region.
This diagram illustrates the progression of air pollutants beginning from anthropogenic and natural sources, leading to emission, atmospheric transport, and ultimately impact on ecosystems, water quality, and human health. The icons visually represent industrial pollution, atmospheric deposition (e.g., acid rain), and respiratory health effects, key concerns for the Hindu Kush Himalaya.
4.1. Black Carbon and Glacier Melt
Black carbon deposition on snow and ice reduces albedo, accelerating melting. This melting contributes to sea-level rise and threatens water resources downstream
| [8] | Flanner, M. G., Zender, C. S., Randerson, J. T., and Rasch, P. J. (2007). Present-day climate forcing and response from black carbon in snow. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 112(D11). |
[8]
.
4.2. Ozone and Greenhouse Gases
Ozone is a greenhouse gas, contributing to global warming. Changes in ozone concentrations can also affect climate patterns.
4.3. Changes in Precipitation Patterns
Climate change is altering precipitation patterns in the HKH region, leading to increased drought frequency and intensity in some areas and increased flooding in others. These changes can exacerbate the impacts of air pollution on water resources and agricultural activities.
4.4. Feedback Loops
A number of feedback loops exist between pollution and climate change in the HKH region. The increased melting of glaciers leads to reduced albedo, which further accelerates warming and melting globally. Reduced forest cover, due to deforestation driven by the increased demand for fuel, also causes warming.
5. Mitigation Strategies and Future Research Directions
Addressing air and atmospheric pollution in the HKH requires a multi-faceted approach, including the following sources.
5.1. Promoting Clean Energy Sources
Transitioning from traditional biomass fuels to cleaner energy sources, such as solar, wind, and hydro power, can significantly reduce emissions of PM, BC, and other pollutants
| [12] | Jacobson, M. Z. (2009). Review of solutions to global warming, air pollution, and energy security. Energy and Environmental Science, 2(2), 148-173. |
[12]
.
5.2. Improving Transportation Systems
Investing in public transportation, promoting the use of electric vehicles, and implementing stricter vehicle emission standards can reduce air pollution from the transportation sector
| [5] | Creutzig, F., Jochem, P., Edelenbosch, O. Y., Mattauch, L., Vuuren, D. P. V., McCollum, D., and Minx, J. C. (2015). Transport: A roadblock to climate change mitigation. Science, 350(6263), 911-912. |
[5]
.
5.3. Implementing Pollution Control Technologies
Installing pollution control technologies in industries can reduce emissions of PM, SO
2, NOx, and other pollutants
| [2] | Boyes, W., and Rogerson, R. (2001). Introduction to economic analysis. Harper Collins College Publishers. |
[2]
.
5.4. Promoting Sustainable Agricultural Practices
Promoting sustainable agricultural practices, such as reduced tillage, crop rotation, and efficient fertilizer use, can reduce emissions of GHGs and other pollutants from the agricultural sector
| [21] | Pretty, J., Brett, C., Gee, D., Hine, R. E., Mason, C. F., Morison, J. I. L., and Dobbs, T. (2006). An assessment of the total external costs for UK agriculture. Agricultural Systems, 65(2), 113-136. |
[21]
.
5.5. Improving Waste Management
Implementing proper waste management systems, including waste segregation, recycling, and composting, can reduce emissions from waste burning
| [30] | Wilson, D. C., Velis, C. A., Cheeseman, C. R. (2012). Role of informal sector recycling in waste management in developing countries. Habitat International, 36(1), 8-15. |
[30]
.
5.6. Regional Cooperation
Strengthening regional cooperation among HKH countries can facilitate the exchange of information and best practices and promote coordinated efforts to address transboundary air pollution.
5.7. Raising Public Awareness
Raising public awareness about the health and environmental impacts of air pollution can encourage individuals and communities to adopt cleaner practices.
6. Future Research Directions and Recommendations
6.1. Improved Monitoring Networks
Establishing comprehensive air quality monitoring networks throughout the HKH region is crucial for tracking pollution levels and assessing the effectiveness of mitigation strategies.
6.2. Source Apportionment Studies
Conducting source apportionment studies can help identify the major sources of air pollution in different areas of the HKH region, allowing for targeted mitigation efforts.
6.3. Health Impact Assessments
Conducting health impact assessments can quantify the health burden of air pollution in the HKH region, providing valuable information for policy-makers.
6.4. Climate Modeling
Using climate models to project the future impacts of air pollution and climate change on the HKH region can help inform adaptation strategies.
6.5. Socio-Economic Studies
Conducting socio-economic studies can assess the economic costs of air pollution and climate change in the HKH region and identify the most cost-effective mitigation strategies.
7. Conclusion
Air and atmospheric pollution in the HKH region pose a significant threat to human health, ecosystems, water quality, and agricultural activities. The region's unique topography exacerbates pollution levels, while climate change further compounds the problem. Addressing this challenge requires a comprehensive and integrated approach, including promoting clean energy sources, improving transportation systems, implementing pollution control technologies, promoting sustainable agricultural practices, and strengthening regional cooperation. Further research is needed to improve our understanding of the sources, impacts, and interactions of air pollution and climate change in the HKH region and to inform the development of effective mitigation and adaptation strategies. Protecting the health and livelihoods of the millions of people dependent on the HKH region requires urgent and sustained action.
Abbreviations
HKH | Hindu Kush Himalaya |
VOCs | Volatile Organic Compounds |
IGP | Indo-Gangetic Plain |
PM | Particulate Matter |
BC | Black Carbon |
COPD | Obstructive Pulmonary Disease |
GHGs | Greenhouse Gases |
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interests.
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APA Style
Aluvihara, S., Yassin, M., Pestano-Gupta, F., Soren, S., Omar, M. H. (2025). Air Pollution and Atmospheric Pollution in Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) Region and Their Adverse Impacts on the Human Health, Ecosystems, Water Quality and Agricultural Activities in the Region: A Review. International Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, 9(2), 126-132. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijaos.20250902.15
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ACS Style
Aluvihara, S.; Yassin, M.; Pestano-Gupta, F.; Soren, S.; Omar, M. H. Air Pollution and Atmospheric Pollution in Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) Region and Their Adverse Impacts on the Human Health, Ecosystems, Water Quality and Agricultural Activities in the Region: A Review. Int. J. Atmos. Oceanic Sci. 2025, 9(2), 126-132. doi: 10.11648/j.ijaos.20250902.15
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AMA Style
Aluvihara S, Yassin M, Pestano-Gupta F, Soren S, Omar MH. Air Pollution and Atmospheric Pollution in Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) Region and Their Adverse Impacts on the Human Health, Ecosystems, Water Quality and Agricultural Activities in the Region: A Review. Int J Atmos Oceanic Sci. 2025;9(2):126-132. doi: 10.11648/j.ijaos.20250902.15
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@article{10.11648/j.ijaos.20250902.15,
author = {Suresh Aluvihara and Mohamed Yassin and Ferial Pestano-Gupta and Sabita Soren and Mohammad Hamid Omar},
title = {Air Pollution and Atmospheric Pollution in Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) Region and Their Adverse Impacts on the Human Health, Ecosystems, Water Quality and Agricultural Activities in the Region: A Review},
journal = {International Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences},
volume = {9},
number = {2},
pages = {126-132},
doi = {10.11648/j.ijaos.20250902.15},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijaos.20250902.15},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijaos.20250902.15},
abstract = {The Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region faces a growing crisis of air and atmospheric pollution, driven by a complex interplay of factors including rapid urbanization, industrial emissions, agricultural practices, and transboundary pollution. This pollution, encompassing particulate matter, ozone, and other harmful gases, is having devastating consequences across the region. On human health, the polluted air contributes significantly to respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and even premature deaths. Vulnerable populations, such as children and the elderly, are particularly susceptible. The region's ecosystems are also under severe stress. Air pollution disrupts plant growth and biodiversity, affecting the delicate ecological balance of the mountains. Deposition of pollutants alters soil chemistry and water quality, impacting forest health and the survival of many species. Water resources, crucial for the livelihoods of millions, are threatened by atmospheric deposition of pollutants. Acid rain and the settling of particulate matter contaminate rivers, lakes, and glaciers, affecting water availability and quality for drinking and irrigation. Agricultural activities are also adversely affected. Air pollution damages crops, reduces yields, and contaminates food sources, impacting food security and farmer livelihoods. Soot deposition accelerates glacier melt, further exacerbating water scarcity and increasing the risk of glacial lake outburst floods. The HKH region's vulnerability to climate change is amplified by air pollution, demanding urgent and coordinated action to mitigate these adverse impacts. Finally, the review emphasizes the need for integrated mitigation strategies and further research to protect the health and livelihoods of the millions of people dependent on the HKH region.},
year = {2025}
}
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TY - JOUR
T1 - Air Pollution and Atmospheric Pollution in Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) Region and Their Adverse Impacts on the Human Health, Ecosystems, Water Quality and Agricultural Activities in the Region: A Review
AU - Suresh Aluvihara
AU - Mohamed Yassin
AU - Ferial Pestano-Gupta
AU - Sabita Soren
AU - Mohammad Hamid Omar
Y1 - 2025/10/09
PY - 2025
N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijaos.20250902.15
DO - 10.11648/j.ijaos.20250902.15
T2 - International Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences
JF - International Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences
JO - International Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences
SP - 126
EP - 132
PB - Science Publishing Group
SN - 2640-1150
UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijaos.20250902.15
AB - The Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region faces a growing crisis of air and atmospheric pollution, driven by a complex interplay of factors including rapid urbanization, industrial emissions, agricultural practices, and transboundary pollution. This pollution, encompassing particulate matter, ozone, and other harmful gases, is having devastating consequences across the region. On human health, the polluted air contributes significantly to respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and even premature deaths. Vulnerable populations, such as children and the elderly, are particularly susceptible. The region's ecosystems are also under severe stress. Air pollution disrupts plant growth and biodiversity, affecting the delicate ecological balance of the mountains. Deposition of pollutants alters soil chemistry and water quality, impacting forest health and the survival of many species. Water resources, crucial for the livelihoods of millions, are threatened by atmospheric deposition of pollutants. Acid rain and the settling of particulate matter contaminate rivers, lakes, and glaciers, affecting water availability and quality for drinking and irrigation. Agricultural activities are also adversely affected. Air pollution damages crops, reduces yields, and contaminates food sources, impacting food security and farmer livelihoods. Soot deposition accelerates glacier melt, further exacerbating water scarcity and increasing the risk of glacial lake outburst floods. The HKH region's vulnerability to climate change is amplified by air pollution, demanding urgent and coordinated action to mitigate these adverse impacts. Finally, the review emphasizes the need for integrated mitigation strategies and further research to protect the health and livelihoods of the millions of people dependent on the HKH region.
VL - 9
IS - 2
ER -
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